Mainstream interest in essential fatty acids (EFAs) has
blossomed in the last few years, thanks to compelling research and endorsements
by the American Heart Association (AHA) and the FDA.
The future looks bright for these misunderstood fatty acids, which have
finally outgrown their decade-long reputation of being considered "bad". More
Americans are making the switch, moving away from a "low-fat" diet to one that
is based on understanding the differences among fats.
Unfortunately, the subcategories and components of EFAs continue to bewilder
and confuse the average consumer and the most knowledgeable retailer, as
emerging new science clashes with contradictory research, labeling concerns, new
products, enhanced delivery systems and a competitive marketplace blur the line
between what is the perfect EFA product for this condition or that ailment.
A look at the basic chemistry of various EFAs, as well as how the Western
diet has been influenced by fats, can help open the doorway to understanding the
many opportunities for successful EFA supplementation.
Alphabet Soup
EFAs are "essential" because they cannot be made by the body and, therefore,
must be ingested through the diet. The importance of a particular EFA also
relates to its role in the body, which is tied to the fatty acid’s structural
specifics.
Fatty acids are chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms that form triglycerides
by joining with a glycerol molecule. Approximately 95 percent of the fat
ingested by humans is in this form. The category can be further broken down by
specific chemical compositions.
Fatty acids can be separated into saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
Saturated fats, known as the "bad fats," come largely from animal fat in the
diet, but also from vegetable oils, such as palm oil. These fats have a high
melting temperature and the chemical links between the carbon atoms are single
links, indicating the maximum amount of hydrogen is present. In recent years,
saturated fats have come under scrutiny. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC)
noted excess consumption of saturated fats can raise blood cholesterol levels
and increase the risk of coronary heart disease. In 2006, the AHA recommended
Americans limit the amount of saturated fats to less than 7 percent of daily
total calories. Additionally, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued
statements announcing a shift away from saturated fat consumption to unsaturated
fats should be incorporated and the elimination of trans-fatty acids
should be adopted in conventional diets to avoid the risk factors associated
with chronic diseases.
On the other side, "healthy fats," known as unsaturated fatty acids, feature
one or more double bonds in their carbon links. Examples of unsaturated fats are
palmitoleic acid, linoleic acid and arachidonic acid. These fats are healthier
than saturated fats and can be found in nuts, avocados and vegetable oils such
as soybean, canola, olive and sesame.
If there is one double bond present, the fatty acid has a lower melting point
and is monounsaturated. If it contains more than one double bond, the acid is
polyunsaturated. Polyunsaturated fats (PUFAs) can be found in grain products,
fish and seafood, soybeans and fish oil. PUFAs can be further divided into
classes of EFAs, which include omega-6s and omega-3s. Omega-6s have their first
double bond six spots up the tail and include linoleic acid (LA) and gamma
linolenic acid (GLA). Omega-3s, with their first double bond three spots from
the tail, include alpha linolenic acid (ALA also known as LNA), and the
derivatives, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
Omega-9s, considered another unsaturated fatty acid, have a "gap" of nine
carbons from the end of the fatty acid chain. Technically, this fat is not
considered an EFA since the human body can manufacture a limited amount, and it
lacks an omega-6 double bond, preventing it from reacting and forming
eicosanoids like the other two omega types. Omega-9 is not normally supplemented
and when the body doesn’t have enough omega-3 or -6, it compensates by producing
omega-9 in its place. Two noted omega-9s are oleic acid, found in olives,
avocados and various nut oils, and erucic acid, which is found in rapeseed,
wallflower seed and mustard seed. Additionally, stearic acid, one of the most
abundant fatty acids found in animal fats, is considered an omega-9 that
converts to oleic acid.
Deep, coldwater fish (salmon, cod and halibut) are a popular dietary source
of omega-3 fatty acids and preformed long-chain PUFAs, including DHA.
Marine plants such as plankton are the primary sources of omega-3 fatty acids in
the food chain. Fish feed on the plankton and absorb the ALA into their tissues,
then convert it to DHA and EPA. ALA is an 18-carbon fatty acid; an
enzymatic process in the body produces additional double bonds, converting ALA
into the 20-carbon fatty acid EPA. A further enzymatic process converts EPA
into DHA, a 22-carbon fatty acid with six double bonds.
"EPA and DHA are omega-3 fatty acids that are required by the human body to
maintain health and prevent disease," said Douglas MacKay, research adviser,
Nordic Naturals. "A large body of scientific evidence has shown that the human
body does not produce enough EPA and DHA to meet its own needs, and therefore
EPA and DHA must be consumed from the diet or supplementation on a regular
basis."
"The main difference between the three omegas is that omega-6 and -9 are
plentiful in our diets and, in fact, we probably get too much," said Mitch
Propster, CEO, Core Naturals. "Omega-3s on the other hand are more difficult to
come by, and it is generally necessary to either eat foods rich in omega-3
and/or supplement with vegetable and marine sources."
Fish oils provide rich amounts of long-chain omega-3 EFAs and are promoted as
heart-friendly, based on evidence from secondary prevention trials, which
investigated whether advising people to eat fish can prevent a second heart
attack. GISSI and DART trials are best known for demonstrating that marine fatty
acids significantly reduce mortality in people who already have cardiovascular
disease.
Plant-based sources are also garnering attention for their rich omega-3 and
omega-6 profiles. For example, flaxseed has a very good ratio of omega-3 to
omega-6, and hemp oil contains both omega-3 and GLA. A new plant-based player
that is said to contain all three omegas has also entered the marketplace.
Buffalo Grove, Ill.-based North American Herb and Spice has manufactured the
Peruvian sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) seeds into a certified
organic cold-pressed extraction called PureOmega. The product is said to contain
48 percent omega-3s by weight.
Following on the coattails of the Lyon study, which demonstrated eating a
Mediterranean diet high in plant-sourced ALA may reduce recurrent events in
patients with heart disease,1 additional trials are underway,
investigating the link between plant-derived ALA/LNA and the prevention of
secondary heart disease.
A plant with a promising omega-3 to -6 ratio is salba (Salvia hispanica L.),
an ancient plant species called chia. The grain has one of the highest fiber
contents, is mineral-rich (potassium, magnesium, calcium, folate, niacin and
copper) and hosts an abundance of omega-3, -6 and -9 EFAs, and has a 4-to-1
omega-3 to -6 ratio. Additionally, salba has a high level of ALA, about 62 to 65
percent. A study published in Diabetes Care Journal found that salba
(from Core Naturals), could potentially lower cardiovascular disease.2
"We measured the body inflammation, the so-called C-reactive protein [CRP],
which has been discovered as a major risk factor for heart disease, even more
important than cholesterol, according to studies from Harvard," said Vladimir
Vuksan, Ph.D., lead researcher at the Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor
Modification Centre at St. Michael’s Hospital, Toronto. The clinical trial of 20
type-2 diabetes patients who consumed four tablespoons of salba every day for
three months showed CRP levels dropped about 32 percent. The only other major
studies showing a reduction in CRP have been done with statin drugs.
Additionally, there were positive results regarding fibrinolytic factors.
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"The thickness of blood can determine heart problems," said Vuksan. "We
actually found some of the major fibrinolytic factors, like factor VIII (linked
to von Willebrand’s disease) and fibrinogen, were significantly reduced after
salba. We concluded that salba is a functional food that has a health effect in
diabetic individuals."
Richard Bazinet, Ph.D., assistant professor, University of Toronto, added the
future for omega-3s is rich with potential, as more research gets completed. "If
omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are found to be anti-inflammatory within the
brain, this could lead to new treatments or prevention strategies for
neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease," he said.
"Furthermore, because of their general safety, they are exciting candidates for
the prevention of chronic diseases."
While long-chained in marine sources, omega-3 fatty acids can be found in
short-chain form in vegetable sources, including flaxseed, hemp and perilla
oils. "Omega-3 fats are important for the production of a hormone-like substance
known as prostaglandins, needed for such things as control of smooth muscle
contraction, lower blood pressure and body temperature, as well as reducing
inflammation," said Propster. "Diets rich in omega-3 help cell membranes to
function properly. Other health issues such as cancer, heart disease, rheumatoid
arthritis, obesity, diabetes and ADD/ADHD can be positively affected by
consuming omega-3 fats."
Omega-6s are fairly prevalent in the human diet, found in a variety of
vegetable and seed oils. Vegetable oils such as flax, black currant and borage
supply considerable amounts of omega-6. Additionally, black currant, borage and
evening primrose oil are also rich sources of GLA. Published research on evening
primrose and borage show positive results on skin conditions such as eczema and
psoriasis,3,4,5,6,7 arthritis,8,9 PMS,10,11
pregnancy and lactation,12,13 and inflammatory conditions.14,15
GLA has entered the market as an omega-6 darling due to its
anti-inflammatory, hormone-like metabolites, called eicosanoids, which lack the
harsh side effects of anti-inflammatory drugs. One of its metabolites, the
prostaglandin PGE1, is responsible for a variety of health and beauty benefits,
such as soothing skin, promoting healing and regulating water loss. "Thanks to
their anti-inflammatory properties, GLA-regulated prostaglandins help to distend
blood vessels so the bloodstream can move smoothly, They also aid in restraining
blood clotting as well as abating the swelling, pain and redness caused by
bodily injuries," said Ann Louise Gittleman, MS, CNS.
There are three common natural sources of GLA: evening primrose, with about 8
to 10 percent GLA; borage oil, containing 20 to 24 percent; and black currant
oil, containing about 14 to 17 percent. A new player in the marketplace, Arcadia
Biosciences, developed GLA-rich safflower plants that can produce concentrations
of two to four times higher than traditional sources, with yields of up to 40
percent GLA oil, according to Ken Ardisson, the company’s business manager. "GLA
has important health benefits but require consumers to consume a lot of borage
or evening primrose oil to gain those benefits," added Eric Rey, president and
CEO, Arcadia Biosciences. "By concentrating that same amount of GLA in one
safflower capsule, we hope to extend the dietary and nutritional benefits of GLA
to more consumers."
The Unbalanced Western Diet
Unfortunately, the modern American diet has developed a love/hate
relationship with saturated fats and trans-fatty acids, instead of
balancing their omega-6 and -3 consumption. In addition, the typical diet has an
excess of AA, which can lead to high levels of series two prostaglandins,
causing a dietary imbalance. Problems also arise when the diet is overly stocked
with omega-6 fatty acids. For optimum EFA intake, the ratio of omega-3 to
omega-6 fatty acids favors series one and three prostaglandins, while staying
light on series two prostaglandins. Scientists have reported that a healthy
intake is a ratio of 3-to-1 omega-3s to omega-6s. "Today, the ratio of omega-6
to omega-3 fatty acids ranges from 15:1 to 30:1, instead of the pre-industrial
age range of 1 to 2:1.5," said MacKay. "Scientific evidence has established that
a Western diet that provides high levels of omega-6 fats shifts the
physiological state to one that promotes thrombosis, vasoconstriction,
inflammation and poor cellular health."
The physiologic changes that result from high intake of omega-6 fats has been
implicated in the development of heart disease, diabetes, autoimmune and
inflammatory diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn’s disease, colitis, multiple
sclerosis, lupus, asthma and etc.), depression, dementia and other chronic
diseases. The tag-team of excess omega-6 consumption and corresponding
pro-inflammatory physiologic state is considered one of the most pressing public
health issues of the 21st century, MacKay noted.
Increased intake of omega-3 fatty acids, with a concurrent reduction of
omega-6 consumption, has been suggested as a solution that could positively
impact the health of today’s society and potentially improve quality of life,
reduce health care costs and promote healthy aging. Obtaining an ideal EFA ratio
can be challenging, and the source of EFAs has become increasingly more
important, since the body can convert LA to GLA and ALA to EPA and DHA.
Choosing the Right EFA
For the everyday consumer, picking the right EFA supplement can be
challenging. The EFA marketplace is overflowing with an abundance of products
from functional foods and beverages to combination EFA blends and single product
brands. A burgeoning new EFA category has garnered attention based on the
special benefits that EFAs have for pregnant women and young children. When
retailers are aware of the different sources of EFAs and how these nutrients can
achieve various physiological outcomes, it can help in making the right
recommendations.
"Though there are many various blends of omega-3 enriched products customized
to various conditions, gender, age, etc. in the marketplace, the retail
professional’s primary duty is to first and foremost convince consumers about
the vital daily necessity of ‘essential’ fatty acids," said Dr. Herb Joiner-Bey,
a practicing physician and contributor for Ferndale, Wash.-based Barlean’s. He
also noted that retailers can become savvier in the EFA category by partnering
with the experts and consider manufacturers that "specialize" in this category.
Retailers have a responsibility in making sure the end product a consumer
purchases will deliver its proposed benefits. Keep in mind that certain handling
conditions and exposure to light, heat or oxygen can ruin an EFA product. Flax
oil, for example, usually lasts around four months from the time of pressing and
may be kept longer if frozen—pay attention to the "pressed on" date, noted
Waterloo, Ind.-based Foods Alive.
To achieve the benefits of fish oil, it is important to choose a fresh,
great-tasting fish oil that is not rancid. All fish oil manufacturers should
test their oil for markers of freshness, and retailers should question
manufacturers on their testing protocols.
To test for freshness, fish oil is analyzed for peroxide value, anisidine
value and totox value. These measurements provide a good indication of how much
free radical damage has occurred in the oil with lower values representing less
oxidation. "Do not underestimate the value of an old fashioned taste and smell
test," said Mackay. "If fish oil smells or tastes rank, the test is complete.
The next step is to throw that bottle out. Fresh, non-oxidized oil should taste
good and not carry a fishy aftertaste."
EFAs are poised to become media darlings, especially as endorsements from AHA
and the American Psychiatric Association continue to educate Americans on the
benefits of consuming these essential nutrients. The abundance of functional
foods and beverages infused with EFAs are also making it easier for consumers
wrap their arms around these "good" fats by consuming them in products and
brands they know and trust. MacKay predicted the future will bring additional
advancements and importance to the category, predicting: "I believe that OB/GYN’s
will officially recommend 300 mg of DHA during pregnancy [and] pediatricians
will come up with official recommendations, as will neurologists, for reducing
the risk of dementia."
References
1. De Lorgeril, et al., “Lyon Diet Heart Study: Benefits of a
Mediterranean-Style, National Cholesterol Education Program/American Heart
Association Step I Dietary Pattern on Cardiovascular Disease” (Circulation.
2001;103:1823.)
2. Vuksan V. “Supplementation of Conventional Therapy With the Novel Grain
Salba (Salvia hispanica L.) Improves Major and Emerging Cardiovascular Risk
Factors in Type 2 Diabetes.” (Diabetes Care Journal. 2007; 30(11):
2804-10).
3. Horrobin DF. "Fatty acid metabolism in health and disease: the role of
delta-6-desaturase." (Am J Clin Nutr. 1993; 57(5 Suppl):732S-736S).
4. Businco L et al. "Breast milk from mothers of children with newly
developed atopic eczema has low levels of long chain polyunsaturated fatty
acids." (J Allergy Clin Immunol. 993. 91(6):1134-9).
5. Fiocchi A et al. "The efficacy and safety of gamma-linolenic acid in the
treatment of infantile atopic dermatitis." (J Int Med Res. 1994;
22(1):24-32).
6. Andreassi M et al. "Efficacy of gamma-linolenic acid in the treatment of
patients with atopic dermatitis." (J Int Med Res. 1997;25 (5):266-74).
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seed oil capsules in children with atopic dermatitis. A placebo-controlled
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9. Rothman D, DeLuca P, Zurier RB. "Botanical lipids: effects on
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Rheum. 1995; 25(2):87-96).
10. Horrobin DF et al. (J Nutr Med. 1991;2:259–64).
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primrose oil in premenstrual syndrome." 2nd International Symposium on PMS,
Kiawah Island, S.C. September 1987.
12. D'Almeida A et al. "Effects of a combination of evening primrose oil
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14. Chilton-Lopez et al. "Metabolism of gamma-linolenic acid in human
neutrophils." (J Immunol. 1996;156(8):2941-7).
15. Ziboh VA, Fletcher MP. "Dose-response effects of dietary gamma-linolenic
acid-enriched oils on human polymorphonuclear-neutrophil biosynthesis of
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17. Paschos GK, et al. “Dietary supplementation with flaxseed oil lowers
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